Native American Spirituality Essay Example for Free

Native American Spirituality Essay The purpose of this essay is to present the spiritual world of the Native Americans, which is one of the oldest forms of Spirituality that exists on earth. The main reason why I have chosen this topic is because I want to find out more information about their spiritual dimension and perhaps to understand better the main differences between our religion and theirs. In order to better observe this aspect, I will be analyzing the religious beliefs of three Native American tribes, such as: The Iroquois, the Apache and the Dakota tribes. To start with, I consider it relevant to mention that the Native American religions centers on a collection of beliefs, which vary from tribe to tribe. However, almost all tribes practice a modified monotheism , which is the belief in the Great Spirit. They also have an animistic belief in individual spirits residing in animals and forces of nature, but none of these is higher than the Great Spirit (Hirschfelder Molin, 1992). In other words, this means that Native American spirituality is nature-based, since it is so closely connected with the earth. As I have previously mentioned, many Native Americans believe in The Great Spirit, who is â€Å"the high deity amongst all of the spirits† (Hirschfelder Molin, 1992). Since ancient times, the Native Americans have believed in a Supreme Being whom they called father and they believe this entity is either a man or an animal, especially a wolf, which has human thoughts and is even able to talk (Panther-Yates, n.d). In order to control the forces of the spiritual world , the Native Americans used ceremonial practices, since these were considered to â€Å"renewed the bond between human beings and the spirit world† (Irwin, 2000). I will later on mention about these ceremonies and the person who is entitled to contact the spirits. In order to have a better understanding of their beliefs I have inserted here one fragment of the spiritual speech held by Charley Elkhair, one of the Native American indian: â€Å"We are thankful to the East because everyone feels good in the morning when they awake, and sees the bright light coming from the East; and when the Sun goes down in the West we feel good and glad we are well; then we are thankful to the West. And we are thankful to the North, because when the cold winds come we are glad to have lived to see the leaves fall again; and to the South, for when the south wind blows and everything is coming up in the spring, we are glad to live to see the grass growing and everything green again. We thank the Thunders, for they are the manitous that bring the rain, which the Creator has given them power to rule over. And we thank our mother, the Earth, whom we claim as mother because the Earth carries us and everything we need.† (Elkhair in M. R. Harrington, 1921). When researching for this essay I came across a very interesting comparison belonging to professor Harrington, who states that: â€Å" The juxtaposition of a personal creator God and anthropomorphic animals derived from mythology is no more inappropriate, however, than the behavior of Christians at Christmas time who set out a creche depicting the birth of Jesus next to a Christmas tree derived from an ancient pagan festival† ( Harrington, 1921). Another interesting element about at the Native American religions is the fact that they are basically free of any priesthood. However, there are still people who have a special connection to the spiritual world, called shamans: â€Å"Shamans are spiritually gifted people who through a variety of means have acquired the ability to help others through trance and dream journeying† (Irwin, 2000). Moreover, it is quite strange that the white anthropologists have often used the name medicine man (even though many were women) to indicate a mixture of shamanic and priestly capacities (Irwin, 2000). Shamanic trances can be induced through a variety of techniques, including chanting or drumming, fasting, and in some cases the use of psychotropic substances, the mildest of which might be tobacco ( McGaa, n.d). During these trance contacts, shamans may communicate with spirits of the dead or other spirits and learn what they need to know to help heal the body, mind, or soul of a patient, to locate game, or to predict the future ( McGaa, n.d). In the following lines, I will briefly present three Indian tribes in order to observe the differences and similarities between them as far as their spiritual world is concerned. The first tribe I will be analyzing is the Iroquois. This Native American tribe believes in twin forces known as Loskeha meaning good and Tawiscara meaning bad (Robinso n, 2002). The Native Americans believe Loskeha brought all the goodness in life, while Tawiscara spread sufferings and brought ill-luck (Robinson, 2002). The Iroquois also believed in the constant care of the Great Spirit, who †ruled and administered the world, and the affairs of the red race. (Robinson, 2002). What really fascinates me at this tribe is that it does not have a detailed conception of his creator because they believe that the Great Spirit was beyond their abilities to understand. However, they have some very detailed descriptions of this lower class of spirits that is believed to interact with the material world. The were known as Invisible Agents or Ho-no-che-no-keh. (Morgan in Robinson, 1954). These spirits possessed their power from the Great Spirit and were considered to be the manifestations of his unlimited power (Morgan in Robinson, 1954). Some of these spirits were given names and they were often identified with the object or force that they presided over (Morgan in Robinson, 1954). For example, He-no, one important spirit, was given the thunderbolt and controlled the weather. Morgan states that: â€Å"he had the form of man and wore the costume of a warrior† ((Morgan in Robinson, 1954). The Iroquois tribe believes not only in the kindness of the Great Spirit but also in the forces of evil. According to their belief, evil is represented by the brother of the Great Spirit, Ha-ne-go-ate-geh, or the Evil-minded (Robinson, 2002), who controls its own inferior spiritual beings. This tribe also believes that the Great Spirit does not have any type of positive authority over the forces of evil, except for â€Å"the power to overcome them when necessary†(Robinson, 2002). Therefore, the Iroquois can either choose to obey the Great Spirit or to the Evil-minded. It is important to note that the Iroquois developed the idea of an immortal soul, which will be judged by the Great Spirit the moment the body will die. This is why, they are afraid of being punished in the afterlife and therefore they worship him through many rituals and ceremonies (Robinson, 2002). These ritual ceremonies practiced by the Iroquois tribes occurred in certain seasonal periods throughout the year, but most commonly during important agricultural periods (Irwin, 2000). Even some of the Invisible Agents were honored at this ceremonies depending on what time of year the ceremony was taking place. The ceremonies were led by Keepers of the Faith, or Ho-nun-den-ont (Irwin, 2000), who were â€Å"a loosely organized council of qualified individuals who were assigned the task of maintaining the ritual practices of the Iroquois people†(Irwin, 2000). The second tribe I will briefly describe is The Apache tribe. Little is known about this nomadic group of Native Americans due to the fact that it lived an isolated existence in the harsh environment of the arid southwest. This tribe relied on scarce resources found in their desert environment for survival (Hirschfelder Molin, 1992). Due to the fact that survival was difficult under these conditions they were not so preoccupied of the spiritual world (Hirschfelder Molin, 1992). This is the reason why the belief system of the Apache tribes is less developed than the other tribe mentioned earlier. For instance, the Apache religion did not recognize a large pantheon of gods and goddesses. (Opler in Hirschfelder Molin, 1992) and focused on supernatural cultural figures that are responsible for the Apache way of life. What is interesting to notice at these entities is the fact that they interfered little in the daily activities of the people unless people called for their help. (Opler in Hirschfelder Molin, 1992). The Apache tribe has no religious ritual either since it is a non-agricultural society. Thus, they had no reason to celebrate seasonal periods and rarely celebrated any type of annual gathering. Instead, they focused all their time and energy on survival (Opler in Hirschfelder Molin, 1992). More importantly, however, was the fact that the Apache lacked an organized belief in an afterlife and instead they focused all attention towards survival in this world. This is why the most common form of ceremony for them were the curing rites, performed only by shamans (Hirschfelder Molin, 1992). Opler describes the Apache religion as a form of devotional shamanism. : It conceives of a universe permeated with supernatural power which must realize itself through man or not at all. (Opler in Hirschfelder Molin, 1992). The third tribe I will be analyzing is the Dakota tribe. According to Raymond J. DeMallie, the Dakota world was characterized by its oneness, its unity. (DeMallie, 1987:27). There was no separation of the natural world from the world of the supernatural: †This unity in nature was thought to be beyond the comprehension of mankind and could only be shared in through the practice of rituals† (DeMallie, 1987:27). The animating force that acted as the common denominator of the universe was known as Wakan Tanka (Densmore,1918:85).The physical world was composed of the manifestations of this animating force, which basically means that they believed that every object was spirit, or wakan. (Densmore, 1918:85). In other words, the Dakota tribe believed that nothing was real in the universe since everything in the material world had only the appearance of being real. Like the inferior spirits in the Iroquois belief system, Wakan Tanka employed the use of Wakan people (DeMallie 1987) to interact with the material world and control the lives of men. These characters were often the objects of worship and praise. According to DeMallie, Wakan Tanka was explained in relation to the Dakota by wicasa wakan, or holy men. (DeMallie 1987). These men attempted to create some type of order and understanding of this Great Incomprehensibility. (DeMallie 1987). White Buffalo Woman was one of the most important Wakan people to the Dakota. Their myth states that she gave the Dakota people the Calf Pipe (DeMallie, 1987) through which they could communicate with the invisible spirit world. According to DeMallie, Dakota rituals were based on mystical experiences instead of systematic worship. The most important aspect of ritual was the individual personal experience. The experience was usually related in the form of an interpretive dance inspired by a personal vision (DeMallie, 1987). There are several observations I need to make at the end of this research about the Native American spirituality. The first observation is that each of the tribes presented above are similar in the way in which they interact with the natural world. Therefore, the Native American spirituality can be characterized by this intimate relationship these people have with nature. They have a deep respect for Mother Earth and they praise her through these rituals that they so often perform. Secondly, I consider it important to mention the fact that there isn’t a clear distinction between the natural and the supernatural in any of the three tribes mentioned earlier. Also, their beliefs are rather a way of life and each tribe has his own system of beliefs. Based on the analysis of these Native American tribes the following conclusion can be formulated: these people have this deep religious feeling, even when systematic rituals are absent (which was the case of the Apache tribe). Kahlil Gibran once asked, Who can separate his faith from his actions, or his belief from his occupation?(Gibran in Robinson, 2002). It seems that Native Americans could not make this distinction either. I believe that is very difficult for other cultures, including our own, to have a full perception and understanding towards the Native American spirituality, since we were not educated into their belief system .Therefore, there are too many differences between the Christians beliefs and theirs, (I am not referring here to religion only, but also to their whole different culture and their unique way of life) which makes it almost impossible to fully understand their spiritual world. Bibliography Arlene B. Hirschfelder Paulette Molin, The Encyclopedia of Native American Religions: An Introduction, Facts on File, (1992). Charley Elkhair, quoted in M. R. Harrington, Religion and Ceremonies of the Lenape, Indian Notes and Monographs, Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, vol 19 (1921). Lee Irwin, Native American Spirituality: A critical reader, University of Nebraska Press, (2000). McGaa, Ed Eagle Man. Interview with Jean Holmes. LightNews.org: NativeAmerican Beliefs- Culture Near Extinction. http://www.lightnews.org/November%20Light%20News/Native_American_Beliefs.htm Native American Spirituality. Ed. Donna Ladkin. GreenSpirit. http://www.greenspirit.org.uk/resources/NatAmerSpirit.htm Native American Beliefs. http://4thmoon.com/styx/nativeam.htm Native American Religion. 1998. The Institute for Philosophy, Religion, and the Life Sciences, Inc. 24 Nov. 2002 http://www.stormwind.com/common/nareligion.html Panther-Yates, Donald. Remarks on Native American Tribal Religions. Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, Georgia. http://www.wintercount.org/remark.doc Religious Movements Homepage: Native American Spirituality.,University of Virginia, Nov. 2002 http://http://religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/nrms/naspirit.html Robinson, B.A.. Religious Tolerance.org: Native American Spirituality, Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance, Nov. 2002 http://www.religioustolerance.org/nataspir.html

The Social And Legal Factors Economics Essay

The Social And Legal Factors Economics Essay Barratt Development plc, a national house builder in the UK construction industry, listed in the FTSE 250, is the second largest house builder in the UK by revenue and by market size (LSE 2010). Like its two biggest competitors, Taylor Wimpey plc and Persimmon plc, it has within the last two years been badly affected by the recession which hit the UK economy in 2008. Before then the company, which was founded in 1958 in Newcastle upon Tyne, had enjoyed relative boom in the UK house building sector, culminating in the acquisition of Wilson Bowden plc in 2007. This acquisition enabled the company to effectively expand its commercial property development arm. As at present, Barratt Developments is represented in all house sectors in the UK, with Barratt Homes in the residential housing market, David Wilson Homes in the up-scale housing market, Ward Homes (a regional brand operating in Kent and south-east), and Wilson Bowden Developments in the social housing and commercial property deve lopment market. The onset of the recession has however presented unprecedented challenges to Barratts operations, causing it to have to rethink strategies and policies in a bid to reduce mounting debts and cope with falling house prices and a drop in sales due to falling demand for new homes. Business-related events Political Factors Political, economic, social, technological, legal and environmental factors in the UK have in the past determined strategies adopted by Barratt Developments plc and will continue to do so. Political decisions determine economic and regulatory policies which have to consider in formulating strategy. For example, the governments Home Owners Mortgage Support Policy Scheme assists home owners who have met certain criteria and are unable to meet their mortgage commitments to pay off their mortgages by providing up to 80% of total interest guaranteed (Communities and Local Government 2010). This policy will in some way determine part of Barratts strategy because the more people who can afford mortgages, the more houses developers like Barratt will sell. Social and Legal Factors Social and legal factors also affect the strategies Barratt adopts because change in patterns of living may dictate what type of houses become more in demand, (for example, family style houses as opposed to flats or vice versa), while changing laws and regulations also have to be satisfied in the course of carrying out their core business activity. Economic Factors The main focus here however is on the prevalent economic factors and how Barratt responds in term of strategy. Lets look into the GDP and unemployment rate, the GDP has been fall even seriously compared to the previous recessions, most sectors of the economy are still struggling with the effects of the down-turn. The result, coupled with high unemployment rates, is that people have less money to spend, and tend to spend their limited resources on essential commodities. This invariably means that the high end market where Barratt is represented by the David Wilson brand may suffer. However, the government has made efforts to ensure that more credit is available for people through the banks by issuing bailout funds. These measures may yet still be inadequate, as depicted in a recent Financial Times Online article, where Barratt called for banks to increase lending and review current stringent mortgage criteria (FT 2010). These developments also means that Barratt may have to sell its c onsiderable stock of built houses at prices far lower than were originally estimated, in order to raise cash and improve liquidity. Porters 5 Forces Buyer Power Depends on individual buyers. Barratt sells to individuals and groups and the government. Individual customers have less bargaining power, while groups and government have more bargaining power. Supplier Power Many suppliers and therefore high competition, several alternative materials are available. Suppliers depend on the major house building firms like Barratt for repeat work and are likely to agree price discounts. Threat of substitute products Most products in the market are known already. Barratt is at the forefront of developing new products, so the threat of new products is relatively low for now. Barratts competitors Taylor Wimpey: Largest sales revenue, market size of 130,000 Persimmon Group: 3rd largest sales revenue, market size of 12,000 Berkeley Group: 4th largest sales revenue, market size of 6,000 Threat of new entrants to the market Barriers to entry: High capital requirement, land acquisition expertise, economies of scale, depresses property market. SWOT Analysis Strengths (internal positive factors) These will include Barratts diverse product portfolio which allows it to switch products with demand. The board of Barratt consists of five executive and five non-executive members from diverse. Barratts leading role in innovative house building technology is an advantage. Weaknesses (internal negative factors) Lack of adequate finance and debt is a continual setback to the survival of the company. Timing of merger with the Wilson Bowden brand has affected Barratt negatively in terms of finance within the last few years. Unsold stock of houses is still a problem as it ties up much needed cash. Opportunities (external positive factors) Advancement in technology and emphasis on sustainability means that Barratt can take advantage of its innovativeness to gain competitive advantage. The underdeveloped nature of the specialized retirement home market means that Barratt can expand to that market. The economic forecasts show that the recession has technically come to an end. Barratt can position itself to take advantage of the recovering economy when it fully sets in. Threats (external negative factors) Government plans to cut spending in future could hamper Barratts ability to reach full recovery. While is still tries to return to profitability, some of Barratts competitors are already profitable. This could pose challenges to Barratts progress. Consumer confidence in the market may not return to pre-recession levels long after the recession reverses.

Japans Western Modernization

Japans Western Modernization Japanese and western scholars are desperately arguing on the over-all definition of modernization. Japan is a perfect example of a country which is product of modernization. From a rural setting to an industrialized one, that is how modernization occurs. Modernization changes the lifestyle of people; fashion, work, and mindset. From a conservative type to a liberal one, that is the evolution made by modernization. Modernization is accompanied by success especially in one countrys economy Japan, a culturally bound country, tremendously transforms itself to a modernized one. The year 1868 is time when Japan decides to be open to western representations and eventually adopt them due to the perception that they were more advanced and preferable. Through the adoption of western ideologies, they can able to compete with other industrialized nations. The modernization of Japan is better explained through studying its history starting from the Meiji period. Western imperialism took political and economical forms. Politically, the foreign powers obtained many privileges from Japan but all these gains were supported up by Western military superiority. By that Japans national right was violated. Economically, foreign imports into Japan tremendously increased due to the low tariff fixed by the unequal settlements. By 1870, foreign imports reached 70% of all Japanese trade. Cheap foreign goods, like English textiles, transferred into Japan and bankrupted native Japanese handicraf t industries which make Japan suffered from critical balance of payments. Although loans were extended to Japan by Westerners but in return, they still received more privileges from them. . Due to this threat to the country, self modernization of Japan has its way. Strengthening military is one key to oppose the political threats of imperialism consequently rich country and strong army (fokoku kyohei) was the slogan of Meiji modernization in which the final objective was to build a strong political rule in Japan eventually to be able to get rid of the unequal treaties forced by the Western powers. The Meiji leaders has a fear that Japan would fully embraced westernization and totally turn away traditional ways. They decided to make the country modernized in order to defend it from foreign attacks. The self-modernization of Japan in the Meiji period has both advantage and disadvantage. They decided to make the country modernized in order to defend it from foreign attacks. The self-modernization of Japan in the Meiji period has both advantage and disadvantage. The idea of modernization of Japan by Meiji leaders somehow more a political reason rather than nationalism, which is the disadvantage. Although it can be a political reason, it can also be a military strategy to protect the country from such invaders, which is the advantage one. Japan undergoes step by step process of modernization; starting from modernizing some certain aspects into an over-all modernization. First transformation is from the military. As an example military reform called for the production of weapons, which only economic reform could successfully were given. At the same time, development of long-term educational, were carried out in order for the people to accept these political, economic, and political aspects. Although preliminary step for modernization was done, there are still some weaknesses that arise such as indirect and incomplete political control over the country at large because the daimyo with their samurai, still ruled the clans, lacking state revenue for complete modernization in which the Meiji government obtained most of its tax income from former Tokugawa lands only, and absence of any national army for the new government depended on only a few western clans (mainly Choshu and Satsuma) for its military force. In order to strengthen the state, the Meiji government took actions, both negative and positive in which the negative measure was the abolition of feudalism and the positive one was the introduction of modern land taxation and military mobilization. There are still problems arise in strengthening the Meiji state such as dissatisfaction among the poor samurai and hard-pressed peasants led to the outbreak of many local rebellions which were nearly 200 uprisings from 1868 to 1878 and partly because of the new land taxation which consequently had a very serious inflation from 1868 to the early 1880s.and by that he income of both the samurai and the government was badly affected. In terms of economic modernization, the Meiji government had a good foundation to start with because the late Tokugawa commercial economy was successful in which many rich merchants had saved large amounts of capital, and if devoted in modern industries, would greatly stimulate industrialization and secondly, from 1854 (when Japan was opened by the West) to 1868, the Tokugawa shogunate and some other clans had already developed significant ship-building and arms-manufacturing industries and there were already some Japanese engineers and technicians who knew Western technology. By 1870, Japan was still largely an agricultural country and modernized agriculture is the basis of and requirement for successful industrialization in which agricultural students were sent abroad to learn more advanced agricultural techniques, foreign experts were working to give recommendation on agricultural development, importation of new kinds of plants and seeds , and foundation of experimental agricultural stations and agricultural colleges throughout the country to test new methods of planting and advise farmers on new agricultural techniques. As a result, more agricultural products were being exported which contribute to Japans economy as well as farmers in which .many poor tenant-farmers went from the villages to the towns, thereby providing cheap labor for urban industrialization, but as more and more farmers became tenants, the countryside was increasingly under the control of conservative landlord-merchants. Industrialization placed the necessary foundation of a modern state. As the Meiji government had a strong and modern economy to rely on, the extent of government power was enlarged thus, its efficiency increased. The rapid industrialization strengthened the Meiji states autocratic rule, as it provided new instruments for power concentration. The government could therefore effectively put down internal oppositions and carry out a stronger foreign policy. In the long run, industrialization destroyed Japans traditional agricultural economy. First, the local economically self-sufficient village society was returned by increased agricultural commercialization and specialization. Secondly, with greater exchange of goods, capital and even labor, localism of village society broke down thus the village people felt that they belonged not only to the village but to the nation as a whole. Thirdly, industry replaced agriculture as the nations most important economic activity. And also, industrial ization reduced economic discriminations of the old Tokugawa society. Steadily, however, new concentrations of wealth and power were built up by the zaibatsu, which restricted much of the entire countrys economy. The standard of living was raised due to the improvement of the economic conditions of the people in which in return the people supported the environment. On the other hand, social mobility was help out by which successful industrialists or businessmen became modern Japans social leaders. In terms of educational background, there is a further improvement pre-1868. Before 1870, many of the late Tokugawa schools already taught Western science and technology. Thus the people were better prepared to accept Western knowledge after 1870. A sound basis for attaining more Western knowledge had been set. As years passed by, there is an increase in the literacy of the Japanese. By 1870, nearly half of the male populations were literate. In late Tokugawa times the Meiji leaders were all educated in the Confucian schools that have a Confucian respect for learning and interest for educational modernization. Through education, the government could widen its popular support by the people. From the 1880s on, however, education was used gradually more by the government to teach nationalistic ideas that makes an attempt for the Meiji government to strengthen the national and social unity, thus conservation of national safety in an age of foreign imperialism. Despite of becoming more undemocratic of education due to politics, it is still a great help for them. S till there are problems that arise for it is not that easy for some conservative ones to accept western teaching and there are times that there is lacking of teachers. To further improved the educational system, the government made bills such as Education Act of 1879, making , Education Act of 1886, Imperial Rescript on Education of 1890 , and Authoritarian education after the 1890s until higher universities were established. Education is the key to make good leaders. Political modernization is intensified to retain power of Meiji leaders. Although there is a splitting of power in 1873 by two issues: the question of the composition of the new modern army to be created and the problem of national defense against Western imperialism. There is suppression against the government which makes hard for them to built solid links to the people. Constitutions were made and promulgate to further develop the political modernization. The Meiji constitution 1889 was attained by the Emperor to the people but in contrast to it, the ideal liberal constitution was made. Although the constitution was undemocratic, Japan had at least approved a Western political structure which helped Meiji government become a modern state. Consequently the state is politically strengthened. The achievements of the constitution were not institutionalized The Emperor was above the constitution. who could be influenced by Military leaders and the Genro outside the restrictions of the c onstitution. The whole constitutional government could easily be turned into a militarist autocracy. Even though there were still that went wrong the transformation of Japan enables them to prove to the whole world that a small country can be powerful one

Behavior Modification Methods in School Essay -- Positive Interdepende

Education in the United States is a continuous source of controversy. How should the generations be taught? This is an extremely important and in depth issue that has many levels. Each level has its own disagreements. One particular level of education that has been researched is whether or not behavioral methods are effective enough to be used in the classroom to improve academic performance. As can be seen in the data included here, there are many forms of positive reinforcement contingencies that can be presented in the classroom. These may include social rewards, like acceptance and encouragement from peers, tangible rewards, like the token economy, or internally motivating rewards, like having a sense of self-efficacy and feeling confident and proud of a particular accomplishment. The studies included here investigate cooperative learning strategies and how behavioral methods relate to academic performance that way, the use of rewards for good or improved performance, and then f inally how the removal of a punishing aspect of the classroom environment, like a teacher’s criticism can possibly improve academic performance. Cooperative learning is one process that includes behavioral methods. A reward structure is included in cooperative learning technology. Rewards can include grades, teacher approval, or physical rewards. In order for a reward structure to be effective, the rewards must be presented to the student quickly after the desired behavior has occurred. What makes this type of reward structure particular to cooperative learning styles is that rewards are given based on how well a group has learned something as a whole. Each person in the group gets rewarded if and only if each individual person has learned the material sufficiently. A second facet of cooperative learning includes positive goal interdependence and positive reward interdependence (Mesch, Johnson, & Johnson, 1987). Positive goal interdependence is when students perceive that they can achieve their goals if and only if the other students with whom they are cooperatively linked achieve their goals. Whereas, positive reward interdependence exists when each member of a cooperative learning group receives the same reward for successfully completing a joint task (Mesch, Johnson, & Johnson, 1987). Mesch, Johnson, and Johnson (1987) state that on the positive goal interdependence ... ...76). Controlling personal rewards: Professional teachers’ differential   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  use of feedback and the effects of feedback on the student’s motivation to   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  perform. Journal of Educational Psychology, 69(4), 419-427. Harris, A. M., & Covington, M. V. (1993). The role of cooperative reward   interdependency in success and failure. Journal of Experimental Education, 61(2), 151-168. Leventhal, G. S., & Whiteside, H. D. (1973). Equity and the use of reward to elicit high performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 25(1), 75-83. Lew, M., Mesch, D., Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. (1986). Positive interdependence,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Academic and collaborative-skills group contingencies, and isolated students.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  American Educational Research Journal, 23(3), 476-488. Mesch, D., Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. (1987). Impact of positive interdependence   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  and academic group contingencies on achievement. The Journal of Social   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Psychology, 128(3), 345-352. Rickard, H. C., Clements, C. B., & Willis, J. W. (1970). Effects of contingent   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  and noncontingent token reinforcement upon classroom performance.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Psychological Reports, 27(3), 903-908.

The Pastoral Setting of Shakespeares As You Like It :: Shakespeare As You Like It Essays

The Pastoral Setting of As You Like It    Central to the pastoral vision of As You Like It is the setting in the Forest of Ardenne, especially the contrast between it and the ducal court. In the former, there is a powerful political presence which creates dangers. Deception lurks behind many actions, brothers have secret agendas against their brothers, and people have to answer to the arbitrary demands of power.    In the Forest of Ardenne, however, life is very different. For one thing, there is no urgency to the agenda. There are no clocks in the forest, and for the exiled courtiers there is no regular work. They are free to roam around the forest, prompted by their own desires. There is plenty of food to eat, so the communal hunt takes care of their physical needs. That and the absence of a complex political hierarchy creates a much stronger sense of communal equality hearkening back the the mythical good old days. The exiled Duke himself attests to the advantages of living far from the court, free of the deceits of flattery and double dealing and welcomes Orlando to the feast without suspicion.    And, most important here, especially in comparison with the history plays, is the importance of singing. As You Like It is full of songs-not performances by professional court musicians, but impromptu group singing which expresses better than anything else the spontaneous joy these people derive from life in the Forest and the joy they give back to others. The songs indicate clearly the way in which in the Forest people can shape their actions to their moods-a situation totally unlike the court where one has to consider one's actions much more carefully.    Hence, the Forest of Ardenne provides for the exiled courtiers an important freedom to experiment with their lives, to discover things about themselves. In the Forest people can talk openly with whoever they might happen to meet on a stroll through the trees, and that might be anyone, given that in the Forest no one owns any particular territory (there are no rooms, palaces, roads-unlike the court where there is a preoccupation with property) and thus one might well meet and have to deal with a person whom one would never get close to in the court (that can have comic results, of course, as Touchstone's conversations with Audrey and William demonstrate).

Loopholes in the Audit Procedure

If Gray had more knowledge regarding JAZZ Best, he would have realized that this was an evident situation where an independent specialist should have been used to perform the audit procedure. These problems hindered the gathering of several types of audit evidence. Because Larry Gray did not do an adequate Job getting to know Barry Mellow and JAZZ Best, he evidence gathered through â€Å"client inquiry† was not reliable. This type of evidence personnel to answer the auditor's questions. Because Gray did not do enough research, he did not reveal the fact that Minnow was fraudulent and dishonest.Client inquiry is rarely adequate as the only supporting piece of evidence for an audit objective and usually must be backed up by additional evidence. However, because Minnows and JAZZ Bests integrity were such a problem, basically every other piece of evidence gathered was untrustworthy. The evidence gathered through â€Å"confirmation† was greatly impacted as well. This evidenc e is obtained with questions asked by the auditor, either written or oral, to a third party and the answers are given directly to the auditor.However, this evidence was made useless because Assured Property Management Inc. And Interstate Appraisal Services directly affiliated with JAZZ Best for the sole purpose of generating fake restoration contracts. However, Gray did not do enough research to figure this out. Furthermore, evidence gathered through â€Å"physical examination of tangible assets† and â€Å"documentation or inspection of records and documents† were rendered useless because they were fraudulent and not independent of the provider.The management assertions relating to this evidence is existence/occurrence and rights and obligations. Rights and Obligations is how management asserts that the recorded and disclosed assets are the rights of the entity and the liabilities are the obligations of the entity at a given date. Existence/Occurrence is when managemen t asserts that the recorded assets or liabilities of the entity that are disclosed on the balance sheet exist at a given date and that the recorded transactions disclosed on he income statement have actually occurred during a given period.The fabricated occurrence of the restoration activity, and the rights and obligations to the building could have been uncovered if Gray had done more research on JAZZ Bests internal controls and Minnows integrity. The evidence obtained during their visit to the restoration site was unreliable due to independence of the provider, a factor of competent evidence. When information is obtained from someone independent of the company and transactions being investigated, the evidence is more reliable. Assured Property Management Inc. AndInterstate Appraisal Services were created by Minnow for the sole purpose of generating fake restoration contracts. However, Gray did not do enough research to figure this out. This influenced the tour of the restoration s ite in Sacramento, CA because they were not independent of the provider. Another problem that lacked independence of the provider was the evidence Gray obtained regarding documents. Because these three companies were directly associated to each other's fraudulent activity, none of the documents received were reliable. Evidently, independence of the provider is a crucial factor and this was lacking in this audit procedure.

Non Financial Factors

TABLE OF CONTENT INTRODUCTION1 TESCO’S RATIO ANALYSIS2 SUMMARY TESCO’S RATIO13 COMPARATIVE ANALYSE – Tesco’s Vs Marks and Spencer’s________________ _______14 CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF TESCO PLC__________________________________________ 21 CONCLUSION? BIBLIOGRAPHY? APPENDIX 1 –TESCO’S PLC APPENDIX 2- MARKS AND SPENCER’S- CONSOLIDATED STATEMENTS I-Introduction This report will evaluate the financial performance of Tesco’s and comparing it to Marks and Spencer’s has the purpose of evaluating the company's worthiness as investment.As a well knowing company around the world and having an important background in the retail environment Tesco’s is one of the largest supermarkets in the world. Present in 14 countries around Europe, Asia and North America. Tesco’s is always dealing in the financial world, providing also bank and insurance services. ‘Tesco was founded in 1919 by Jack Cohen from a market stall i n London’s East End. Over the years our business has grown and we now operate in 14 countries around the world, employ over 500,000 people and serve tens of millions of customers every week.We have always been committed to providing the best shopping experience. Today we continue to focus on doing the right thing for our customers, colleagues and the communities we serve. ’ (Tesco 2012). The first section of this report, which is the main body, will use financial statements from 2010, 2011 and 2012, along with standard financial ratio analysis to develop a clear picture of Tesco’s financial performance comparing to the competitor. The second section includes a comparative analysis of the competitor strategy and also a conclusion on the performance and health of Tesco PLC based on the years 2010, 2011 and 2012.The third section, presents a critical analysis containing the non-financial factors and risks impacting on the future of Tesco PLC. II-Tesco’s rati o analysis: Ratio Analysis simplifies the financial statement and helps in future planning. It also helps us to inform the entire story of changes and current performance of the company. Ratios highlight all the different factors linked with successful and unsuccessful business. It is a powerful tool of financial analysis in the company. By using Ratio analysis it is easy to evaluate and understand financial health and trend of the business and possible future forecast of the company.Currency = ? (000) The return on capital employed is an important measure of a company's profitability. If ROCE is higher than the company is sound healthy. In 2010 Tesco had 11. 52% ROCE which increase steadily in 2011 and 2012 respectively 12. 93 and 12. 64. So there is a possible reason for this change is that profit increase. It determines management's ability to generate earnings from a company's total pool of capital. Company’s gross profit margin ratio shows that there is slightly differen ce between 2010 and 2012 which shows there was no any major change in their prices.In 2011 the company recorded a gross profit margin ratio of 8. 30%. The positive trend in this margin shows that the company is on profitability trend and therefore is a good investment option. So there is a possible reason for this change the higher cost of production. Operating Margin often refer to simply as a company's profit margin, there is no major change during the period from 2010 to 2012. Activity ratio: 1. Assets Turnover: Asset Turnover= Sales revenue/Capital employed During the last three years Tesco has improved gradually returning continuously in 2011 and 2012 turnover was respectively 2. 4 and 2. 06 . For most companies, their investment in net assets represents the largest component of their total assets. There are no significant changes in asset turnover. Liquidity ratio: Liquidity is a very important ratio for money lenders, suppliers and potential investors to access. According to the Tesco annual statement the result from 2010 to 2012 shows that the current ratio was less than 1 which has a problem to meet their liability in short term. Tesco’s assets are less and its liabilities are quite high which indicates company’s weak current ratio and liquidity problem.Quick ratio is a more conservative (safer) measure of liquidity. A higher quick ratio implies greater safety. According to the acid test ratio Tesco’s acid test ratio was not good because it is below the standard. The liabilities have increased because of increased loan 2010, 2011 and 2012 respectively. In the year 2010 Receivable days was 12. 10 days but after that in 2011 and 2012 fiscal year respectively it was increased to 13. 86 days and 15. 02 days, which is showing their position is not good to collect receivable earlier.It could affect business as well because customers always prefer a long time to pay back whatever they have taken on credit. 2012 = 3598/59278*365 = 22. 15 days It takes Tesco’s approximately 19 to 22 days taken to sell its product from the time it acquire it. Inventory days increased continuously since 2010 to 2012. The possible reasons could be the company’s sales are not good. Capital Gearing: The term â€Å"capital gearing† or â€Å"leverage† normally refers to the proportion of relationship between equity share capital including reserves and surpluses to preference share capital and other fixed interest bearing funds or loans.As the higher a company's degree of leverage as the more the company is considered risky. In, Tesco’s gearing scenario gearing was decreased in 2010 and 2011 separately from 0. 51 to 0. 43, and it was standstill 0. 43 in 2012, which indicates the company improving financially. So there are possible reasons for this change, long term is decreasing in comparison with capital employed. Return on assets: . The profitability ratio here measures the relationship between net profit and assets. Return on assets= Net profit before interest and tax / Total asset*100Return on asset (ROA) indicator of how profitable a company is relation to its total asset . ROA gives us an idea of Tesco how efficient management is sat using its asset to generate earning. In 2010 return on asset was 7. 51% after that there was a decrease till 2012 to 5. 54 %. Tesco PLC has recorded in decreasing sharply value of P/E with values of 14. 12, 12. 12, and 8. 74, being recorded for 2010, 2011, and 2012 respectively (Yahoo Finance 1st Nov 2010,2011,2012). A number of factors could be possible vary due to decreasing in P/E including increased competitiveness for capital in market. Yahoo Finance 2012) 2. Earnings per share: The Earning per Share (EPS) considers the profits that could be paid to each ordinary shareholder. The increase in profit resulted in the increase in EPS. Earnings per share: Earnings o holders / No of o shares in issue 2010 = 29. 33p 2011 = 34. 43p 2012 = 36. 75p The c ompany recorded EPS increased in 2010, 2011 and2012 respectively. There could be number of reason for increasing earnings per share. Possible reason could be the increase in profit, increasing in loan. But it would not be the long term sustainability. 3.Dividend: Dividend per share (DPS) is the sum of declared dividends for every ordinary share issued. DPS is the total dividends paid out over an entire year divided by the number of outstanding ordinary shares issued. Tesco financial statements indicate that dividend yield for the company has been rising in the last five years. The company recorded dividend yields of 3. 15%, 3. 56 %p and 4. 59% for 2010, 2011 and 2012 respectively (Yahoo Finance 1st Nov 2010, 2011, 2012). This is an indication that investor willing to invest in the company have a chance of receiving better dividend in the future. Yahoo Finance 2012) In 2011 company’s debt/equity ratio was higher to1. 04, which is not very good indication for the company. Becau se it heavily depends on loan is not a good policy for any business. But it was reduced the following years in 2011 and 2012 respectively 0. 77 and 0. 77. Debt to Equity: Debt to equity = Non-current interest bearing debt: Equity It is used to determine how easily a company can pay interest expenses on outstanding debt. In 2010 company’s interest coverage was 5. 99 times which increased in 2011 to 10. 47 times but in 2012 decreased slightly to 9. 5. The company’s profit has increased to pay their interest easily. Interpretation and ratio analysis conclusion: In the year 2012 Tesco‘s activity, profitability, liquidity ratio, financial gearing, and investment ratio was comparing with the previous year ratio. In the activity ratio net assets turn increased. Liquidity ratio was quite reasonable due to the economic condition and creditor days decreased which was not good for the company. Financial gearing was not satisfactory and finally, investment ratio increased ma rgin which indicates revenue.The organization managed to increase its return on capital and assets turn over remarkably. Tesco has slightly increased its receivable and payable credit payment period currently showing its financial position. On the other side, it can also be an opportunity for the customers to attract more customers as they always prefer to hold back as much as possible. There is no major difference in the net profit and gross profit margin that means Tesco did not bring any change in its prices and there was not any external pressure from government or competitors.Liquidity of Tesco shows not a major decline over the past 3 years even though it is below 1 which is quite risky condition because current ratio below 1 means liabilities are more and assets are very less. If there will be major decline in the business, the company will not be able to pay their short term liabilities. The Interim report shows that they are reducing the gearing but we Tesco improved its sh ares value by having an increase in the dividends per share and share price. Investors will be attracted by this but this will not stay for long. Yahoo Finance, 2012) III-Comparative Analyse – Tesco’s Vs Marks and Spencer’s We can use Ratio Analysis to do a comparative analysis and seeing our performance with respect to our competitors. For this I have taken Marks and Spencer Group PLC and compared it with Tesco PLC to see the Standing of my company with another company. This helps us to know our strengths and weaknesses in all the areas of the business. Summary of Comparative Results between M & S and Tesco (2010-2012) Revenue and Operating Profits:The revenues earned by the company and the level of operating profit does tell us the size , capacity and type of player the company is in market. The Tesco’s Operating profit s increase over the years but if we see the table below M & S, they reduced the operating cost, but the revenue increased constantly as well. Chart : Tesco & M and S Revenue Comparison The Comparison of Tesco and Marks & Spencer tells us that Tesco is a much bigger company and has a much higher turnover. But through its policies we see that the level of Operating profit of Tesco is higher because of its strong Optimization policies and procedures.Ratio’s comparison between M& S and Tesco: Tesco’s and M & S ratio analysis: Ratio Analysis helps us to inform the entire story of changes and current performance of the company. = 12. 93% 2012 = 3985/ (13731+17801) *100 = 12. 64 % The return on capital employed is an important measure of a company's profitability. If ROCE is higher than it the company is sound healthy. If we see the chart we can M is in stronger condition. 2011= 9740. 30/ (2677. 40+2456. 50) =2. 46 2012= 9934. 30/ (2778. 80+2489. 10) = 2. 49 = 0. 43 2012 = (1460. 10-681. 90) /2005. 40 0. 38 Earnings per share: Earnings o holders / No of o shares in issue 2010 = 29. 33p 2011 = 34. 43p 2012 = 36. 75p M & S 2010 = 33. 50 p 2011 = 38. 80 p 2012 = 32. 50 p The increase in earnings per which is attractive point for investors. Tesco Earning per share increased on 2012 while M Earning per share decreased. 2012 = 2489. 10/2778. 80 = 0. 89% Tesco debt/equity ratio was higher to 1. 04 %, which reduced the following years in 2011 and 2012 respectively 0. 77% and 0. 77%. While M & S was 1. 40 % on 2010 & it’s got bit better on following years.IV-Critical Analysis of the non- financial factors and risks for Tesco PLC In today's worldwide competitive environment organisations have to compete with others regarding a wide range of fields like product quality, delivery, reliability, after-sales services, brand, customer care and feedbacks†¦ (Chairman, FTSE 100 Company, 2003) The financial ratio analysis done above, is very useful as it summarises all the necessary information in order to understand the health of a company, covering profit, liquidity, growth and risk of a com pany.But it is also essential to look at the non financial factors that can have a huge impact on a company’s future potential. V-Conclusion Taking into consideration the ratio analysis applied to Tesco’s between 2010 and 2012 what can be noticed is that the company had some variation. According to level of risk, Tesco’s is less risky than M&S in terms of investment considering that in 2010, 2011 and 2012 had as gearing ratios: 1. 04 %, 0. 77% and 0. 77% respectively and M & S for the same period 1. 40 %, 0. 92% and 0. 89%. As much higher is the gearing ratio more vulnerable is the company to downturns.With an improvement of its shares value by having an increase in the dividends per share and share price, Investors will be attracted by this but this will not stay for long. Moreover considering how much cash flow is available for each pound invested, which is demonstrated by the dividend yield, Tesco’s in 2010 had a variation from 3. 15% to 4. 59% in 2012 which is positive for the business. On the other hand, Tesco’s reacted negatively into the full analysis of profitability, efficiency and effectiveness, liquidity and investor ratios.As an example, the investment per share had a decrease of 5. 38 from 2010 to 2012 and also receivable days had a considerable increase which is a negative impact. Despite of having lower prices than M&S with strong position in UK and also in other continents, Tesco’s might be a good investment in the future, depends on its performance and long-term investment for the follow years. However currently it is not an investment to be considered. Bibliography London Stock Exchange (2012). Tesco PLC ORD SP. London Stock Exchange (2012). Marks and Spencer Group PLC ORD 25P.Available at:http://www. londonstockexchange. com/exchange/prices/stocks/summary/fundamentals. html? fourWayKey=GB0031274896GBGBXSET1 Mark and Spencer (2010)-Annual Report and Financial Statements. Available at http://corporate. marksandspencer. com/documents/publications/2010/annual_report_2010 http://corporate. marksandspencer. com/documents/publications/2011/annual_report_2011 http://corporate. marksandspencer. com/documents/publications/2012/annual_report_2012 (Yahoo Finance, 2012) http://www. bizmove. com/finance/m3b3. htm APPENDIX 1 APPENDIX 2 APPENDIX 1 APPENDIX 2